Philosophy by George Hernandez

Exloring philosophy, psychology, mind, spirit, and the like.

Philosophy is literally "love of wisdom" as the word is derived from the Greek words of philo and sofia.

Philosophy Fields
Philosophy Favorites

Philosophy Fields

Philosophy explores concepts and ideas in fundamental way. A person or group may have a "philosophy" or worldview —a collection of knowledge, principles, or perspectives drawn especially from personal experience— but academic philosophy is a field of study, where everything is subject to review.

There are many different ways or means to explore, create, and play with ideas.

A priori ("from before" or "before experience").
- Logic/Reasoning. Inference by knowing how.
- Math. Geometry.
- Possibly also doxa (Greek "common beliefs; popular opinion") or emdoxa (Greek "sagely beliefs; elder opinion").
- Possibly also mystical or supernatural citation.
A posteriori (Latin "after the fact").
- Empirical Evidence. Measurement, observation, and experimentation.
- Intuition. Feelings and emotions. Inference without knowing how. Possibly also mystical or supernatural insight.
Communication. Here are the members of the trivium or three primary subjects in Medieval education. (FYI: The trivium was followed by the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy). The trivium and quadrivium formed the seven Liberal Arts, which in turn were followed by studies of philosophy and religion).
- Dialectic. The truth of communication. Debate. Exchanging propositions (theses) and counter-propositions (antitheses).
  - The Socratic method was a famous dialectic technique by Socrates in which another's hypotheses was questioned by Socrates and answered by the other until it led to a contradiction.
- Rhetoric. Methods of persuasion. The style of communication.
  - Ethos (Greek ήθος, "the place of living", hence "starting point", "disposition", "character".). Leveraging the character and credibility of the speakers or subject.
  - Pathos (from the Greek paschein (πάσχειν), "to suffer"). Leveraging emotions and feelings.
  - Logos (Greek λόγος, "word", but can mean also mean thought, speech, reason, principle, standard, or logic). Leveraging facts, numbers, and figures.
- Grammar. Language. Linguistics. Words (morphology) and syntax. The means of communication.
Analysis. The methodical decomposition of concepts.
Synthesis. The composition of concepts into unified systems or movements.

There are many different ideas, concepts, fields, subjects, topics, etc. of philosophy and they often overlap. Also many topics that were part of "philosophy" have fallen out of the field of "philosophy". For example: For Aristotle, the first to formalize categorize many fields, philosophy (Greek philosofia, "love of wisdom") and science/study (Greek dianoia) were coextensive. Aristotle also said that "All dianoia are either practical, poetical or theoretical." Thus in Aristotle's system you have the following (Even though the Corpus Aristotelicum have ordered Aristotle's works into the five categories of Logical, Physical (largest by far), Metaphysical, Ethical, and Aesthetic since the ~0100s.):

Theoretical Studies. This includes Mathematics, Physics, and Metaphysics.
- Aristotle's Math.
- Aristotle's Physics. Physics (Greek "nature") is roughly equivalent to the modern usage of natural sciences or science.
- Aristotle's Metaphysics is what most people equate to the modern usage of the word "philosophy".
- The "meta" in metaphysics is literally the Greek word meta ("after") + physics ("nature"). Metaphysics means "after physics" simply because Aristotle's book on metaphysics is usually arranged after his book on physics.
- Aristotle calls his Metaphysics the study of "immaterial being", the "first philosophy", or "the highest degree of abstraction".
- Aristotle came up with four major areas of Metaphysics. These categories are still largely in use today.
  - Logic. From the Greek logos. The study of arguments, proofs, and truth.
  - Ontology. From the Greek ont- (ὄν), the present participle of einai (εἶναι, "to be"). The study of being or existence.
  - Epistemology. From the Greek episteme, "knowledge". The study of the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge.
  - Axiology. From the Greek axia (αξια, "value" or "worth"). The study of value or quality.
Practical Studies. This includes the studies of Ethics and Politics.
Poetical Studies. This includes the study of Poetry and Fine Arts.

Western Academic Philosophy and Eastern Academic Philosophy are often differentiated. While the analytic problems may be similar (because we're all humans), their synthesis of ideas is different (because each draws from different pools of cultures and philosophers). With modern globalization, the future of academic philosophy should synthesize Eastern and Western Academic Philosophies while, of course, retaining historical purity. There are of course philosophic schools that may not be considered either Eastern or Western.

Here are the modern main categories of modern Western academic philosophy. There are of course many more fields within philosophy.

Logic. Reasoning itself. The Greeks may have viewed this as an aspect of epistemology.
Metaphysics. The investigation of ultimate reality, of what there is.
- Metaphysical Skepticism
- Metaphysical Dualism
Epistemology. The study of the origins, validity, and limits of knowledge. Some say that philosophy has two fields: Epistemology and everything else.
- One of the oldest definitions of knowledge comes from Plato's Theaetetus: knowledge is justified true belief.
- Nature, Reality, Extent of Knowledge
- Method of Knowledge
- Validity of Knowledge
Ethics. The study of the nature of morality, judgment, and conduct.
Aesthetics. The study of the nature of beauty.
Politics. The study of interrelations between individuals and groups, especially the acquisition and application of power.

Philosophy Favorites

Here are some of general books on philosophy and their choices of favorites.

Great Thinkers of the Eastern World and Great Thinkers of the Western World both edited by Ian P. McGreal. Each book has concise articles on 100+ top thinkers. Here is a list of some of the great philosophers.
- Thales. The 1st western philosopher.
- Socrates. Changed philosophy from natural science to ethics and politics. Inspired Plato.
- Plato. Usually considered philosopher #1. Works: The Republic.
- Aristotle. Usually considered philosopher #2. Works: The Nichomachean Ethics, The Metaphysics, The Politics.
- Plotinus. Fused Greek and Christian thoughts. Last of the ancient Greeks. Works: The Enneads.
- St. Augustine. First Scholastic. Works: The Confessions, The City of God.
- St. Anslem. Scholastic who did the Ontological Proof of God. Works: The Monologion.
- St. Aquinas. Greatest Scholastic. Switched emphasis from Plato to Aristotle. Works: The Summa Theologica.
- Duns Scotus. Scholastic.
- William of Ockham. Scholastic.
- Nicolo Machiavelli. Ruthless philosophy. Works: The Prince, The Discourses.
- René Descartes. Father of Modern Philosophy by challenging Aristotle. Works: The Meditations, Discourse on Method.
- Thomas Hobbes. Political philosopher. Works: Leviathan.
- Francis Bacon.
- Benedict (Baruch) Spinoza. Works: Ethics.
- Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouet).
- Nicholas Malebranche. Works: The Search After Truth.
- Antoine Arnauld. Works: Logic or the Art of Thinking.
- John Locke. Empiricist. Works: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Two Treatises of Government.
- Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz. Rationalist. Works: Discourse on Metaphysics, Monadology, Theodicy.
- George Berkely. Idealist, i.e. nothing physical. Works: A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous.
- David Hume. Empiricist, inductive knowledge is not certain. Works: A Treatise on Human Nature, The Enquiries.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Political philosopher. Works: The Social Contract, The Origins of Social Inequality, Emile.
- Immanuel Kant. Usually considered the greatest modern philosopher. Works: Critique of Pure Reason, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals.
- Johann Gottlieb Fichte: Kantist, Founded Nationalism.
- Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. History is progressing towards a perfect state of being. Works: Phenomenology of Spirit, The Philosophy of Right.
- Karl Marx. Hegelist who invented Communism. Works: The Communist Manifesto, Capital.
- Søren Kierkegaard. First major challenge to Hegel. Founded Existentialism. Quite Christian. Works: Either/Or, Sickness Unto Death, Fear and Trembling.
- Arthur Schopenhauer. Pessimist who influenced Nietzsche. Works: The World as Will and Representation.
- Herbert Spencer.
- John S. Mill: Utilitarian. Benthamist. Works: On Liberty, Utilitarianism.
- Friedrich Nietzsche. Ethicist. Rejected traditional Christian and Jewish morality as "slave morality". Works: Thus Spake Zarathustra, Beyond Good and Evil.
- William James. Pragmatist. Important US philosopher. Works: Pragmatism, Varieties of Religious Experience.
- Gottlob Frege. Logician, greatest since Aristotle.
- Henri Bergson.
- Benedetto Croce.
- Bertrand Russell. Usually considered one of the greatest philosopher of the 20th century. Works: Problems of Philosophy, History of Western Philosophy, Principia Mathematica.
- Ludwig Wittgenstein. Russellist. Usually considered one of the greatest philosopher of the 20th century. Philosopher of language. Works: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, Philosophical Investigations.
- Martin Heidegger. German. Works: Being and Time.
- Jean-Paul Sartre. Existentialist. French. Works: Being and Nothingness.
- George Satanyana.
- John Dewey.
Masterpieces of World Philosophy by Frank Migill. Some 100 influential Eastern and Western works.
The History of Western Philosophy by Bertrand Russell. Here is the rough TOC.
1. Ancient Philosophy
  1. The Pre-Socratics
  2. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
  3. Ancient Philosophy After Aristotle
2. Catholic Philosophy
  1. The Fathers
  2. The Schoolmen
3. Modern Philosophy
  1. From the Renaissance to Hume
  2. From Rousseau to the Present Day
The Story of Philosophy by Will Durant. Here is the rough TOC.
1. Plato
2. Aristotle and Greek Science
3. Francis Bacon
4. Spinoza
5. Voltaire and the French Enlightenment
6. Immanuel Kant and German Idealism
7. Schopenhauer
8. Herbert Spencer
9. Friedrich Nietzshe
10. Contemporary European Philosophers
  1. Henri Bergson
  2. Benedetto Croce
  3. Bertrand Russell
11. Contemporary American Philosophers
  1. George Satanyana
  2. William James
  3. John Dewey
The Greatest Minds and Ideas of All Time by Will Durant.
- 'The Ten "Greatest" Thinkers'. Considering only those who were primarily philosophers and scientists, and ruling out those who were known more for art or spiritualism or action. Confucius. Plato. Aristotle. St. Thomas Aquina. Copernicus. Sir Francis Bacon. Sir Isaac Newton. Voltaire. Immanuel Kant. Charles Darwin.
- 'The Ten "Peaks" of Human Progress. Speech. Fire. The Conquest of the Animals. Agriculture. Social Organization. Morality. Tools. Science. Education. Writing and Print.
Philosophy [W] has a list of philosophers (Eastern and Western), philosophic topics, and many others. Here are some of their lists as of 2005:
- 'The Western philosophic tradition began with the Greeks and continues to the present day. Major Western philosophers include Parmenides, Democritus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, Heraclitus, Avicenna,Sextus Empiricus, Augustine of Hippo, Boethius, Anselm of Canterbury, William of Ockham, John Duns Scotus, Thomas Aquinas, Francis Bacon, René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Nicolas Malebranche, Gottfried Leibniz, Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, John Locke, David Hume, Thomas Reid, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Charles Darwin, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Arthur Schopenhauer, John Stuart Mill, Søren Kierkegaard, Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche, Gottlob Frege, Alfred North Whitehead, George Edward Moore, Bertrand Russell, Henri Bergson, Edmund Husserl, John Dewey, William James, Charles Sanders Pierce, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Martin Heidegger, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Theodor Adorno, Jean-Paul Sartre, John Rawls, Simone de Beauvoir, Albert Camus, Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze, Jane Addams, Judith Butler, Phyllis Rooney, Emmanuel Lévinas, and Thomas Kuhn.
  
  Other influential contemporary Western philosophers include Giorgio Agamben, David Chalmers, Daniel Dennett, Jerry Fodor, Jürgen Habermas, Saul Kripke, Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Thomas Nagel, Jean-Luc Nancy, Richard Rorty, Hilary Putnam, Herbert Hart, Robert Nozick, John Searle, Gianni Vattimo, Slavoj Žižek, Willard van Orman Quine, Donald Davidson, and Jacques Derrida (the last three deceased since 2000 but continue to exert a strong contemporary influence, due to both the strength of their published work and their institutional influence among peers and students).
  
  Western philosophy is sometimes divided into various branches of study, based on the kind of questions addressed. The most common categories are: metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy and philosophy of law, ontology, and aesthetics. Some other disciplines include logic, philosophy of mind, and philosophy of language. For more information, see Western philosophy .'
- 'Eastern philosophy follows the broad traditions that originated from, or were popular within, India, Persia, Mid East and China. Major Eastern philosophers include Yajnavalkya, Gautama Buddha, Zarathustra, Kong Zi (Confucius), Kapila, Lao Zi (Lao Tzu), Akshapada Gotama, Meng Zi (Mencius), Zhuang Zi (Chuang Tzu), Xun Zi, Han Feizi, Mazdak, Patanjali, Nagarjuna, Dharmakirti, Al-Razi, Sankara, Farabi, Ramanuja, Ibn Rushd, Huineng, Huang Po, Zhu Xi, Suhrawardi, Wang Yangming, Mulla Sadra, Narayana Guru, Vivekananda, Aurobindo, Allama Iqbal, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Seyyed Hossein Nasr.
  
  Indian philosophy is perhaps the most comparable to Western philosophy. For instance, the ancient Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy explores logic as some modern Analytic philosophers do; similarly the school of Carvaka was openly atheistic and empirical. However there are important differences - e.g. ancient Indian philosophy traditionally emphasized the teachings of schools or ancient texts, rather than individual philosophers, most of whom either wrote anonymously or whose names were simply not transmitted or recorded.'
- Schools: Analytic philosophy | Constructivism | Critical theory | Empiricism | Existentialism | Extropianism | Humanism | Idealism | Integral theory | Materialism | Nihilism | Positivism | Post modernism | Pragmatism | Rationalism | Relativism | Skepticism | Sophism | Stoicism | Transhumanism | Utilitarianism

Page Modified: (Hand noted: 2007-10-26 18:15:46Z) (Auto noted: 2010-12-24 22:59:04Z)